Scottish Enlightenment and the Antislavery Movement in Pre-Revolutionary Philadelphia: Benjamin Rush as a Case Study
In the second half of the 18th century, slavery as a problem was greatly discussed in the Anglo-American world. In colonial Philadelphia, John Woolman exerted great influence in leading the Society of Friends to recognize the evil of slavery; Anthony Benezet, a Huguenot refugee who immigrated to Philadelphia and attacked the slavery system by writing many anti-slavery works; In domestic England, Granville Sharp published the first tract and attacked slavery──A Representation of the Injustice and Dangerous Tendency of Tolerating Slavery ... (1769). Moreover, he took part in several lawsuits on slavery, like the Jonathan Strong’s case, as well as the Somersett's Case, and struggled for the rights of the African slaves and highly supported the abolition of the slavery in the British Empire. Following him, Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce and the Clapham Sect became abolitionists and continued to abolish the slavery in England and its overseas colonies. As a result, with the help of these abolitionists, the Atlantic slave trade was finally ended in the British Empire in 1807.
Unlike these abolitionists in the 18th century Atlantic world, Benjamin Rush, a prominent Presbyterian doctor and professor of chemistry in Philadelphia, defended his anti-slavery views not only scientifically through the medical knowledge he had learnt at University of Edinburgh in the 1760s, but also faithfully through the religious education he had received when he was young. In 1766, when Dr. Benjamin Rush set out for his studies in Edinburgh, he was outraged by the sight of 100 slave ships in Liverpool harbor. Then in 1773, he wrote a pamphlet entitled "An Address to the Inhabitants of the British Settlements in America, upon Slave-Keeping," in which he not only assailed the slave trade, but the entire institution of slavery in terms of the Christianity and the laws of nature. Dr. Rush argued scientifically that Negroes were not by nature intellectually or morally inferior. Any apparent evidence to the contrary was only the perverted expression of slavery, which "is so foreign to the human mind, that the moral faculties, as well as those of the understanding are debased, and rendered torpid by it." Moreover, in 1792, Rush thought that skin color and hair difference of the African Americans meant they were diseased and could be cured with medical care. Then he presented a paper before the American Philosophical Society and argued that the “color” and “figure” of blacks were derived from a form of leprosy. He was convinced that with proper treatment, blacks could be cured (i.e. become white) and eventually... assimilated into the general population.
Comparing with other founding fathers in Revolutionary America who embraced the slavery at that time, Rush became a radical abolitionist. But why was Rush so radical an abolitionist? Why did he support the antislavery movement in pre-Revolutionary Philadelphia? Why did he defend his arguments through the medical knowledge he learnt in the University of Edinburgh? To what extend can we understand his inner mind as an abolitionist?
Regarding to the antislavery movement in Pre-Revolutionary Philadelphia, historians have discussed it a lot. Some examine it from the perspective of religion; some explore it from the perspective of the hegemonic ideology of the Philadelphia Quakers; some even approach it from the perspective of the moral responsibilities of the middle class of the Philadelphia Quakers. These historical studies help us a lot in understanding the antislavery movement in Pre-Revolutionary Philadelphia. However, rarely have historians work on this topic from an Atlantic perspective and discuss this issue from the perspective of the enlightened Christianity. In my paper, taking Benjamin Rush as a case study, I am going to revisit the antislavery movement in Pre-Revolutionary Philadelphia and discuss how the Scottish Enlightenment, as well as the Christianity contributed to his views on abolitionism at that time.
Contribution to the Existed Literature:
Benjamin Rush, one of the most well-known founding fathers in Revolutionary America, left several original resources about his life and career as a physician, as well as a professor in Chemistry. In 1773, over the slavery issue, Rush debated with Richard Nisbet. Richard argued that the slavery was not forbidden by Scripture and thought that the slavery in the West-India planters of the British Empire was not inhumane and illegal. Richard published his pamphlet with a title named Slavery Not Forbidden By Scripture,: Or, A Defence Of The West-India Planters, From The Aspersions Thrown Out Against Them, By The Author of A Pamphle, in which he asserted his points of view on slavery. Disagreeing with him, Rush refuted his views and published his political pamphlet — An address to the inhabitants of the British settlements in America, upon slave-keeping ... to which are added observations on a pamphlet, entitled, "Slavery not forbidden by Scripture, or, A defence of the West-India planters" (1773, 2rd edition, Philadelphia), and pointed out his views on this issue. In his own autobiography, namely, The Autobiography of Benjamin Rush: His "Travels through life" together with his Commonplace book for 1789-1813, Rush kept his diaries and letters, which were the original resources to approach his inner mind. Essays, Literary, Moral and Philosophical kept his papers and speeches on public school, education and so on, which was very helpful for us to understand his political views and character.[1] Also, with the help of his two volumes Medical Inquiries and Observations (1805), we can recognize to what extend he was influenced from the Scottish Enlightenment through examining his medical knowledge.
Moreover, historians have also edited his letters. Dagobert D. Runes and Lyman Henry Butterfield both edited his letters and political writings.[2] These were the basically original materials on Rush, with the help of these materials, I can explore how Rush formed his views on slavery, as well as how was he influenced by the Scottish Enlightenment.
Methodology
In my paper, I’d like to put Rush in the historical context of the Atlantic abolitionism in the 17th century. Rush pursued his M. D at University of Edinburgh and visited Paris and London in the 1760s. During his stay in Europe, he encountered several enlightenment thinkers, from whom he formed his enlightened thinking. Meanwhile, Rush became close friends of Granville Sharp, John Woolman, Anthony Benezet and other abolitionists in the 18th century Atlantic world. To understand the inner mind of Rush and his view on the abolitionism in the Atlantic world, it is necessary for us to put him in the context of the abolitionism of the 18th century Atlantic world.
Moreover, enlightened Christianity is also another perspective that can greatly help me to understand Rush’s view on abolitionism. Rather like other abolitionists who advocated the abolition of slavery in Pre-Revolutionary Philadelphia in terms of religious piety, Rush formed his view on antislavery in terms of Christianity, as well as enlightened thinking.
Rush, an archetype of the Philadelphia’s enlightenment in the 18th century, was greatly influenced by the Scottish Enlightenment, as well as the religious education in colonial Philadelphia. The making of Rush was a process intermingled religious faith with enlightened thinking. Rush’s views on slavery in Pre-Revolutionary America offered us a good lens to deepen our understanding of the Philadelphia’s enlightenment, as well as the Scottish Enlightenment and its impact in colonial Philadelphia.
[1] Benjamin Rush, Essays, Literary, Moral and Philosophical (1806, Philadelphia); Medical inquiries and observations, Volumes 1-2 (Philadelphia, 1805);
[2] Dagobert D. Runes, The Selected Writings of Benjamin Rush (Ramage Press, 2008); Lyman Henry Butterfield, Benjamin Rush: a physician as seen in his letters
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